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, ) and deviatoric stress (right column) fields of the reference model for different times, t, and bulk shortening, ? b . Strain rate and deviatoric stress are quantified with the square root of the second invariant of the strain rate,? II, and deviatoric stress, ?II, tensor, respectively. Magnitudes of? II and ?II are displayed with logarithmic colorscale, Colormaps are from Crameri, 2018.